Scientific Progress

Most scientific progress is the result of careful consideration of work that has already been done. The wonderful world which lies before us today has been put up by hardworking men with clear heads and inventive mind, and these who follow them along life’s road will improve on their efforts. It is sometimes necessary to question and even to disbelieve some of the statements made by experts. Action or experiment can often end an argument or achieve a breakthrough.

When men were wondering whether it was possible to reach India by sailing westwards from Europe, and whether there was any land on the other side of the Atlantic Ocean, Christopher Columbus decides to act. He gathered some men, invited them to go on board his three ships, and set out across the dangerous waters of the Atlantic Ocean. He was successful in finding land, but it was not India. The result of his action was that the arguments came to the end.

Any young man who wishes to do research must be courageous enough to question old beliefs and do some original thinking about them. Although we seem to know so much, there are many things we don’t know. Even when we pull an atom to pieces, we do not really know what the pieces are, we often do not reach the reality behind what we discover, and the more we learn, the better we realize our ignorance.

1.Christopher Columbus decided to set out his trip because he wants to ________

A.travel round the world

B.bring words into action

C.discover the truth with action

D.bring the argument to an end

2.According to the passage, the more we learn _______

A．the more ignorance we will become

B. the more brilliant we are

C. the more confident we are of ourselves

D. the more we know about our ignorance

3.Our present wonderful world has been built up by _______

A. men who do not believe in others but themselves

B. those who work hard and dare to break way from old ideas

C. those who can make improvements on other people’s work

D. men who work extremely hard in following their teachers

4.Columbus succeeded in finding out that_______

A. the Atlantic was dangerous to get across  

B. India was to the west of the Atlantic

C. There was land on the other side of the Atlantic

D. it was possible sail to India by crossing the Atlantic

Scientific Progress
Most scientific progress is the result of careful consideration of work that has already been done. The wonderful world which lies before us today has been put up by hardworking men with clear heads and inventive mind, and these who follow them along life’s road will improve on their efforts. It is sometimes necessary to question and even to disbelieve some of the statements made by experts. Action or experiment can often end an argument or achieve a breakthrough.
When men were wondering whether it was possible to reach India by sailing westwards from Europe, and whether there was any land on the other side of the Atlantic Ocean, Christopher Columbus decides to act. He gathered some men, invited them to go on board his three ships, and set out across the dangerous waters of the Atlantic Ocean. He was successful in finding land, but it was not India. The result of his action was that the arguments came to the end.
Any young man who wishes to do research must be courageous enough to question old beliefs and do some original thinking about them. Although we seem to know so much, there are many things we don’t know. Even when we pull an atom to pieces, we do not really know what the pieces are, we often do not reach the reality behind what we discover, and the more we learn, the better we realize our ignorance.
【小题1】Christopher Columbus decided to set out his trip because he wants to ________

　　Atoms are building materials of all matter, because by putting together atoms in different ways, all elements and compounds can be formed．

　　An element is a substance or a kind of thing that has only one type of atom． Pure oxygen has only oxygen atoms． Elements are substances which cannot be broken down chemically into any simpler substances．

　　All the atoms of an element have the same atomic number． You will remember that the atomic number is the number of protons (= very very small pieces of matter that carry positive or Å electricity) in the nucleus or centre of an atom, and this number determines or decides the nature of the element． Each oxygen atom has eight protons in its nucleus, while each aluminum has thirteen． We call these substances elements because all their atoms are of the same type;they all have the same number of protons in the nucleus．

　　The element is made up of chemical units which have two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds or connections． A chemical unit is the smallest unit of a substance which shows all the chemical nature of the substance． Chemical units of elements are called molecules． The number of atoms in a molecule depends on the element．

　　At room temperature, some elements are gases (in a gas, there are larger spaces between the (molecules )． In the Noble Gases, each molecule has only one atom, because the atoms of these elements do not form chemical bonds with each other． In other gases, however, the molecules each have two atoms held together by chemical bonds． For example, nitrogen, chlorine, fluorine, oxygen, and hydrogen are all gases whose molecules have two atoms each．

　　The chemical symbol or sign of an element stands for one atom of the element． The formula of the element, however, stands for one molecule of the element．

　　Most elements are solid at room temperature． Some of these elements are made up of single atoms placed closely together within the solid, e．g． copper, iron, and nickel．

　　Other solid elements are made up of molecules with two or more atoms each． Iodine is a solid whose molecules have two atoms each(I2 ), but phosphorus has molecules made up of four atoms (P4 ), while the molecules of sulphur may have up to eight atoms each ( S8 )． In each of these elements, the molecules are put so closely together that the result is a solid substance．

　　Bromine and mercury are two elements which are liquids at room temperature． Bromine, like its neighbours chlorine and iodine in the periodic ( = of period ) table, has molecules made up of two atoms each． In these liquid elements, the molecules are close together, but not so crowded;they can pass lightly by one another．

1．All elements are made up of　　　　 ．

A．atoms B． matter C． building materials D． molecules

2Pure elements can ______．

A．never be broken away in any way

B．not be broken into smaller parts in any simpler way

C．seldom be made up of only one atom

D．have only oxygen atoms

3．Which of the following statements is TRUE?

A．The nature of atoms decides the nature of an element they are in．

B．The number of atoms decides the nature of an element they are in．

C．The nature of protons inside an atom decides the nature of the atom．

D．The number of protons inside an atom decides the number of the atom．

4． The symbol of aluminum is ______ and its atom number is ______

A．Al, 8 B．Alu, 9 C．Al, 13 D．Alu, 14

5． The molecule is ________of a substance．

A．a small chemical unit B．the smallest unit

C．the chemical bonds　　D．a chemical unit

6． A noble gas molecule has ________．

A．something to do with room temperature

B．no chemical bonds with each other

C．only one atom

D．has no chemical bonds with other elements

7．The formula of fluoride , sulphur , iodine and phosphorus are __________．

A 2, 4, 6, 8 B．2, 2, 4, 8

C．2, 4, 2, 8 D．2, 8, 2, 4

8． Molecules in a solid are 　　 those in a gas．

A．as closely placed as B．more closely put than

C．less closely placed than D．smaller in space than

9． It seems that elements in an ordinary lab are 　　 solids．

A．mostly B．sometimes C．seldom D．never

10． Which of the following statements is TRUE?

A．Bromine and mercury are always solids．

B．Molecules of liquids are less closely put than those of gases．

C．Each bromine element has the same number of atoms as that of nitrogen．

D．Liquid molecules are always more closely put than those of solids．

Scientific Progress
Most scientific progress is the result of careful consideration of work that has already been done. The wonderful world which lies before us today has been put up by hardworking men with clear heads and inventive mind, and these who follow them along life’s road will improve on their efforts. It is sometimes necessary to question and even to disbelieve some of the statements made by experts. Action or experiment can often end an argument or achieve a breakthrough.
When men were wondering whether it was possible to reach India by sailing westwards from Europe, and whether there was any land on the other side of the Atlantic Ocean, Christopher Columbus decides to act. He gathered some men, invited them to go on board his three ships, and set out across the dangerous waters of the Atlantic Ocean. He was successful in finding land, but it was not India. The result of his action was that the arguments came to the end.
Any young man who wishes to do research must be courageous enough to question old beliefs and do some original thinking about them. Although we seem to know so much, there are many things we don’t know. Even when we pull an atom to pieces, we do not really know what the pieces are, we often do not reach the reality behind what we discover, and the more we learn, the better we realize our ignorance

1. 1.

   Christopher Columbus decided to set out his trip because he wants to ________

   1. A.
      travel round the world
   2. B.
      bring words into action
   3. C.
      discover the truth with action
   4. D.
      bring the argument to an end
2. 2.

   According to the passage, the more we learn _______

   1. A.
      the more ignorance we will become
   2. B.
      the more brilliant we are
   3. C.
      the more confident we are of ourselves
   4. D.
      the more we know about our ignorance
3. 3.

   Our present wonderful world has been built up by _______

   1. A.
      men who do not believe in others but themselves
   2. B.
      those who work hard and dare to break way from old ideas
   3. C.
      those who can make improvements on other people’s work
   4. D.
      men who work extremely hard in following their teachers
4. 4.

   Columbus succeeded in finding out that_______

   1. A.
      the Atlantic was dangerous to get across
   2. B.
      India was to the west of the Atlantic
   3. C.
      There was land on the other side of the Atlantic
   4. D.
      it was possible sail to India by crossing the Atlantic

　　If we wish to write an equation for the chemical reaction between the elements phosphorus and oxygen, we begin with the formulae for the molecules of phosphorus and oxygen．

　　P4 (s) + O2 (g)--->　　　　[※s = solid , g = gas ．]

　　Again, we state the formulae of the molecules which react;by writing P4 and O2, we indicate or show that a molecule of phosphorus has four atoms, while a molecule of oxygen has two atoms ．

　　The product of this reaction is the compound phosphorus oxide:

　　P4 (s) + O2 (g)--->　　　　P4O10 (s)

　　Again wesee that a chemical unit of the new compound has two types of atoms． Each chemical unit contains or has four phosphorus atoms and ten oxygen atoms． This equation correctly gives the formulae of the reactants and the products, but, as it is written, mass is not conserved or kept． Only two atoms of oxygen enter the reaction, but ten atoms of oxygen appear in the product． This equation cannot be correct． Ten atoms of oxygen must have come from five molecules of oxygen． So we must make the following correction:

　　P4 (s) + 5O2 (g)---> P4O10 (s)

　　Now the mass of oxygen is conserved;all the oxygen atoms in the product are present in the reactants．

　　Now the equation is correct． Mass is conserved, and both the reactants and the products are shown by correct formulae． This process or step by which we explain all the atoms in a reaction, and so show that mass is conserved or kept throughout the reaction, is called balancing a chemical equation． A chemical equation is not correctly written until it shows that the reactants and products obey or keep to the Law of Conservation of Mass． This law of chemistry states or says that: In an ordinary chemical reaction, atoms are neither created (= newly made) nor destroyed．

　　In many cases or very often, both the reactants and the products of chemical reactions are compounds． But, as always, the reaction results in a rearrangement or replacing of the atoms in the reactants to form new substances or things． For example, copper (II) oxide will react with hydrochloric acid to produce a salt, copper(II) chloride, and water．

　　CuO(s) + HCl (2q)---Cucl2(aq) + H2O (1)

　　[※aq = aqua/‘æ kw¶ / =liquid solution溶液;l = liquid ．]

　　Since we know the reactants and the products, we begin our equation by writing correct formulae for these compounds． Then we check or examine to see whether the Law of Conservation of Mass has been observed． We can see immediately that it has not, for two atoms of chlorine appear in the products while only one atom of chlorine is shown in the reactants． So we balance the numbers of chlorine atoms and check again．

　　CuO(s) + 2HCl (2q)---CuCl2(aq) + H2O (l)

　　Now the equation is correct． It tells us that each compound has two different types of atoms． During the reaction, these atoms have “changed patterns”, so to speak, and new arrangements have been formed to produce different compounds．

　　We have seen that elements may react with one another to form compounds, and since compounds may also react with one another to form new substances, the number and variety of chemical reactions which may occur are almost limitless． Chemical equations are a type of chemical shorthand which we use to show these reactions, but they do not tell us what will happen when elements or compounds react． We can write a correct equation only if we know both the reactants and the products． Suppose you knew that the element zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce a salt, zinc chloride, and the element hydrogen． You would begin the chemical equation by writing correct formulae to show the chemical units of the reactants and the products:

　　Zn(s) + HC1(aq) ® ZnCl2 (aq) +H2(g)

　　Correct formulae for the chemical units of both elements and compounds are necessary． (All the common gases have two atoms per molecule, and you are fairly safe in supposing that most other elements have only one atom per molecule． However, you have seen a few exceptions to this rule earlier in the chemistry book you learned at school．) If you are satisfied that your formulae are correct, balance the equation to show that the Law of Conservation of Mass is observed during the reaction． In our example you can see that the two atoms of hydrogen and the two atoms of chlorine in the chemical units of the products must have come from two chemical units of the reactant, hydrochloric acid．

　　We show this fact as follows:

　　Zn(s) + 2HC1(aq) ® ZnCl2 (aq) +H2(g)

1．Which of the following is a correct equation?

A．P4B． P4O10 C． P4 + O2 ---> P4O10　　D． P4 + 5O2 ---> P4O10

2．Which of the following is an element?

A．P B． P4O10　　C． H2O D． CuO + 2HCl ---> Cucl2 + H2O

3．P4 shows that it 　　　　 ．

A．has four atoms　　B． is a new compound

C．is the formula of an element D． contains or has ten oxygen atoms

4．Whichof the following is a reactant in a chemical reaction?

A．P4O10 in P4 + 5O2 ---> P4O10　　B． O2 in P4 + O2 --->

C．CuO in CuO + 2HCl---> CuCl2 + H2O

D．H2 in Zn + 2HC1 ---> ZnCl2 +H2

5．Which of the following is NOT correct?

A．ZnS + HCl ---> ZnCl2 +H2S　　B． P4 + 5O2 ---> P4O10

C．CuO + 2HCl---> CuCl2 + H2O　　D． Zn + 2HCl---> ZnCl2 +H2

6．Matter is made up of 　　　　　　　　 ．

A．substances　　B． reactants and products

C．elements and compounds　　D． equations

7．Which of the following sayings is true?

A．Most elements have only one atom each．

B．Most gases have only one atom each．

C．Almost all elements have two atoms each．

D．Almost all gases or gas elements have two atoms each．

8．What quantities are the same on both sides of a chemical equation?

A．Molecule quantities　　B． Atom quantities．

C．Reactant quantities and product quantities． D． Element quantities．

9．The difference between a compound and an element is that 　　 ．

A．they have different number of atoms each

B．they have different quality of atoms each

C．the element has the same kind of atoms while the compound has not

D．the element is made up of atoms while the compound is not

10．How many molecules of sodium would be required to produce six molecules of hydrogen according to the following equation?

　　2Na + 2H2O ---> 2NaOH + H2

A．6．　　B．8．　　C．10．　　 D．12．